Method of reducing sulfur dioxide emissions of a circulating fluidized bed boiler

ABSTRACT

A method of reducing sulfur dioxide emissions of a circulating fluidized bed boiler. Sulfur-containing carbonaceous fuel is fed to a furnace of the boiler, and calcium carbonate is fed to the furnace at a rate relative to the first stream such that the molar ratio of calcium in the second stream to sulfur in the first stream is at most about 1.0. The fuel is combined so that the sulfur is oxidized to form sulfur dioxide. The calcium carbonate is calcined to form calcium oxide and the calcium oxide is used to sulfate the sulfur dioxide to form calcium sulfate. Flue gas particles are separated using a hot loop separator, and the separated particles are returned to the furnace. A sulfur-reduction stage downstream of the furnace further reduces the sulfur content of the flue gases.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to a method of reducing sulfur dioxideemissions of a circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boiler by incorporating asulfur-reduction stage in the flue gas path.

2. Description of Related Art

Carbonaceous fuel, such as coal, is combusted in the furnace of a CFBboiler in a bed comprising at least one generally inert material, suchas sand, and a sulfur dioxide-reducing additive, such as limestone. Afluidizing gas, usually air, is introduced through a bottom grid of thereactor to fluidize the bed material and to oxidize the fuel. Meanwhile,sulfur in the fuel oxidizes mainly to form sulfur dioxide (SO₂), whichmay be harmful if emitted to the environment in large quantities. At thehigh temperatures prevailing in the furnace, usually from 750° C. to900° C., calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) of the limestone is calcined to formcalcium oxide (CaO), which converts the SO₂ to calcium sulfate (CaSO₄),which can be removed from the furnace along with the ashes produced inthe combustion.

Although a relatively good sulfur-reduction efficiency can be obtainedin CFB boilers solely by feeding a sulfur dioxide-reducing additive,usually limestone (calcium carbonate), directly into the furnace, inorder to achieve 98% or better reduction efficiency in the furnace, thereducing additive has to be fed into the furnace in abundance to thesulfur in the fuel. For example, whereas limestone often is added at arate providing a Ca/S molar ratio of at least 1.5 to 3, in order toachieve a very high reduction efficiency of above 98%, Ca/S ratios ashigh as 4 to 5 are required. With such high Ca/S ratios, the bottom ashand fly ash discharged from the furnace invariably contain a largeamount of excess CaO, typically more than 20%, which makes the use ordisposal of the ashes difficult.

Another problem associated with the conventional sulfur-reductionprocess in a CFB furnace is that the calcination of calcium carbonate isan endothermic reaction, with a reaction energy of 178.4 kJ/kmol. Thus,the calcination of excessive amounts of limestone to form calcium oxidedecreases the thermal efficiency of the boiler. For example, in order toachieve 98% sulfur reduction when combusting coal containing 2% sulfur,limestone is introduced at a rate providing a Ca/S ratio of 5, and theenergy required for calcination reduces the thermal efficiency of theboiler by about 2 percentage points.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,309,393 discloses a sulfur-reduction method for afluidized bed boiler, wherein limestone is added to the furnace in Ca/Sratios ranging from 1 to 1.5, so as to provide sulfur reduction of 30 to60% in the furnace. The ashes produced in the furnace, which contain aconsiderable amount of CaO, are collected and treated for utilization inanother sulfur-reduction stage disposed in the flue gas duct downstreamof the reactor.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

An object of the present invention is to provide an efficient method ofreducing sulfur dioxide emissions of a circulating fluidized bed boiler.

According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a methodof reducing sulfur dioxide emissions of a circulating fluidized bedboiler comprises steps of (a) feeding a first stream comprising asulfur-containing carbonaceous fuel to a furnace of the boiler; (b)feeding a second stream comprising calcium carbonate to the furnace at arate relative to the first stream such that the molar ratio of calciumin the second stream to sulfur in the first stream (the Ca/S molarratio) is between about 1.2 and about 0.6; (c) combusting the fuel sothat the sulfur is oxidized to form sulfur dioxide and ashes areproduced in the furnace; (d) calcining the calcium carbonate to formcalcium oxide in the furnace and utilizing the calcium oxide to sulfatethe sulfur dioxide to form calcium sulfate; (e) discharging flue gasesand particles entrained in the flue gases from the furnace; (f)separating the particles from the flue gases using a hot loop separator,and returning the separated particles to the furnace; (g) dischargingthe ashes from the boiler; and (h) further reducing the sulfur contentof the flue gases in a sulfur-reduction stage downstream of the furnace.

Conventional CFB boilers generally rely solely on sulfur reduction inthe furnace for purposes of reducing sulfur emissions. More recently,however, as the desired sulfur-reduction level has become as high as98%, sulfur reduction by feeding limestone only to the furnace requiresthe use of very high limestone feed rates, corresponding to Ca/S ratiosof as high as 5 or greater. This, in turn, increases the sulfur-reducingadditive costs, decreases the thermal efficiency of the boiler, andleads to the production of high amounts of CaO-rich ashes. In order tominimize these disadvantages, the desired sulfur reduction can be met byincorporating a further sulfur-reduction stage downstream of thefurnace, i.e., in the flue gas path.

The present invention thus relates to an advantageous process for sulfurreduction in a CFB boiler comprising such a further sulfur-reductionstage in the flue gas path. The present invention especially relates toa new method comprising the introduction of sulfur-reducing additiveinto the furnace of such a boiler at an advantageous feed rate. Theinvention is based on the observation that the use of sulfur-reducingadditive feed rates that are lower than those used conventionally leadsto new and considerable advantages in the operation of CFB boilers.

When feeding sulfur-containing fuel into the furnace of a CFB boiler ata fixed rate, the rate of sulfation of sulfur dioxide to form calciumsulfate in the furnace increases with an increasing Ca/S ratio, i.e.,with an increasing feed rate of calcium carbonate into the furnace. Atlow Ca/S molar ratios, the rate of sulfation depends approximatelylinearly on the calcium carbonate feed rate, but at higher Ca/S ratiosthe rate of sulfation levels off, at the latest when the sulfurconversion approaches 100%. Correspondingly, the utilization of calciumcarbonate is higher at low feed rates than it is at high feed rates.

Assuming that all calcium carbonate fed to the furnace is calcined toform calcium oxide in the furnace, the consumption of energy in thecalcination is linearly proportional to the feed rate of the calciumcarbonate. However, the sulfation of sulfur dioxide to form calciumsulfate is an exothermic reaction, releasing a heat of 502.4 kJ/kmol,which is more than the heat, 178.4 kJ/kmol, required for thecalcination. Thus, at relatively low Ca/S ratios, increasing the calciumcarbonate feed rate increases the net heat released in the furnace, butat higher Ca/S ratios an increased calcium carbonate feed rate decreasesthe net heat released in the furnace.

The preferred calcium carbonate feed rate, in terms of thermalefficiency, depends on the dependence of the rate of sulfation on theCa/S ratio. This dependence, in turn, depends on the fuel type,especially on the sulfur content of the fuel, and also on the design andoperation of the furnace. It has turned out that in typicalcircumstances a Ca/S molar ratio of about 1.0 is preferable in terms ofthe thermal efficiency of the furnace. More specifically, as long as theincremental sulfur reduction is at least about 35.5%, i.e., when a shareof at least about 0.355, the ratio of 178.4 kJ/kmol to 502.4 kJ/kmol, ofadded calcium carbonate is converted to calcium sulfate, increasing thecalcium carbonate feed rate increases the thermal efficiency.

If the calcium carbonate feed rate is higher than the above-definedoptimal value, the sulfur conversion in the furnace is still enhanced,but the thermal efficiency is decreased and the amount of calcium oxidein the ashes is increased. Correspondingly, when the calcium carbonatefeed rate is lower than the above-defined optimal value, the sulfurconversion in the furnace and the thermal efficiency in the furnace areslightly decreased, but the calcium oxide content of the ashes isdecreased. According to the present invention, calcium carbonate ispreferably fed to the furnace at a rate, which is about as high as, orslightly less than, the feed rate providing optimal thermal efficiencyin the furnace.

The preferred Ca/S ratio is usually about 1.0. However, the thermalefficiency of the boiler is typically a rather shallow function of theCa/S ratio, and the optimal value may in some cases differ from 1.0. Forexample, when combusting low-sulfur fuels, or when the sulfation is notvery efficient, e.g., due to a relatively large particle size of thesulfur-reducing additive or an inefficient particle separator in the hotloop, the optimal Ca/S ratio may be slightly larger than 1.0, e.g.,about 1.1 or 1.2.

In some cases, the limestone used as a sulfur-reducing additive maycontain impurities, especially dolomite, which consume energy in thefurnace, but do not participate in the sulfation process. Then, theeffective calcination heat of the additive is higher than 178.4 kJ/kmol,and the critical value for the incremental sulfation rate is higher thanthe above-mentioned 35.5%. Thus, the optimal additive feed rate, interms of thermal efficiency, is lower than for pure calcium carbonate,and is usually obtained with a Ca/S ratio of slightly less than 1.0,e.g., about 0.9 or 0.8.

According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, thesulfur-reduction method comprises a step of enhancing the averagecalcium carbonate utilization efficiency in the furnace. Preferably, thestep of enhancing the calcium carbonate utilization efficiency isperformed so that the efficiency is more than about 60%, when thecalcium carbonate feed rate stream is about the same or slightly lessthan its optimal value in terms of the thermal efficiency of the boiler.The calcium carbonate utilization efficiency can in practice bedetermined from the contents of different calcium compounds in theashes.

According to another preferred embodiment of the present invention, thesulfur-reduction method comprises a step of enhancing the sulfationefficiency in the furnace. Preferably, the step of enhancing thesulfation efficiency is performed so that the sulfur dioxide reductiondegree in the furnace is more than about 60%, when the calcium carbonatefeed rate stream is about the same or slightly less than its optimalvalue in terms of the thermal efficiency of the boiler. The sulfurdioxide-reduction degree in the furnace can in practice be determined byanalyzing the flue gases between the furnace and the sulfurdioxide-reduction stage downstream of the furnace.

The step of enhancing the calcium carbonate utilization efficiency orthe sulfation degree may advantageously comprise the recycling of bottomand/or fly ashes discharged from the boiler back into the furnace. Therecycling of the ashes enhances the utilization of the calcium carbonatefed into the furnace, and, thus, modifies the dependence of the sulfurdioxide reduction degree on the Ca/S ratio of the original feed streams.Generally, the recycling of ashes shifts the optimal Ca/S ratio to alower value, and enhances the advantageous effects of the presentinvention.

The step of enhancing the sulfation efficiency or the sulfation degreemay advantageously comprise selecting or preparing the average particlesize of the sulfur reducing additive to be less than about 200 μm.Alternatively, or additionally, the step of enhancing the sulfationefficiency or the sulfation degree may advantageously comprise using aparticle separator in the hot loop having a separation efficiency of atleast about 99.9% for particles having an average diameter of 200 μm.The step of enhancing the sulfation efficiency or the sulfation degreemay also comprise other known processes, such as enhancing the mixing ofparticles in the furnace or adjusting temperatures or other conditionsin the boiler so as to provide rapid calcination of the calciumcarbonate.

The portion of desired sulfur reduction that is not performed in thefurnace is preferably performed downstream of the furnace by one of adry, semidry, or wet sulfur-reduction process. Various suitable dry,semidry, and wet sulfur-reduction processes are well-known to personsskilled in the art, and, therefore, are not described herein.

According to another preferred embodiment of the present invention, amethod of reducing sulfur dioxide emissions of a circulating fluidizedbed boiler comprises steps of (a) feeding a first stream comprisingsulfur-containing carbonaceous fuel to a furnace of the boiler; (b)feeding a second stream comprising calcium carbonate to the furnace at arate relative to the first stream such that the molar ratio of calciumin the second stream to sulfur in the first stream (the Ca/S molarratio) is at least about 0.6, and at a rate low enough to provide anincremental sulfur-reduction rate of at least about 0.355; (c)combusting the fuel so that the sulfur is oxidized to form sulfurdioxide and ashes are produced in the furnace; (d) calcining the calciumcarbonate to form calcium oxide in the furnace and utilizing the calciumoxide to sulfate the sulfur dioxide to form calcium sulfate; (e)discharging flue gases and particles entrained in the flue gases fromthe furnace; (f) separating the particles from the flue gases using ahot loop separator, and returning the separated particles to thefurnace; (g) discharging the ashes from the boiler; and (h) furtherreducing the sulfur content of the flue gases in a sulfur-reductionstage downstream of the furnace.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The above brief description, as well as further objects, features, andadvantages of the present invention will be more fully appreciated byreference to the following detailed description of the presentlypreferred, but nonetheless illustrative, embodiments in accordance withthe present invention, when taken in conjunction with the accompanyingdrawings, wherein:

FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a CFB boiler in accordance with thepresent invention;

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of different reaction heats as a functionof Ca/S ratio in a CFB boiler.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

FIG. 1 schematically illustrates a preferred embodiment of a CFB boiler10 in accordance with the present invention. The boiler comprises afurnace 12, a cyclone separator 14, and a flue gas channel 16 fordirecting flue gases discharged from the furnace through a stack 18 tothe environment. The furnace 12 includes means 20 for feeding primaryair to the furnace through a bottom grid 22, and means 24 forintroducing secondary air at a higher level of the furnace. The means 20for feeding primary air to the furnace may include, for example, a pump,ducting with a flow controller, and a wind box. The means 24 forintroducing secondary air may include, for example, branch ducting and aflow controller. Secondary air can be introduced at multiple levels, butfor the sake of clarity, a single level is shown in FIG. 1. Although notillustrated in FIG. 1, the flue gas channel 16 optionally may include aheat recovery area.

The furnace 12 also includes means 26 for feeding fuel into the furnace,and means 28 for introducing a sulfur-reducing additive, such aslimestone, into the furnace. The means 26 and 28 for introducing thefuel and the sulfur-reducing additive may include, for example, feedhoppers or feed bins, feed channels with feed conveyors such as belts orfeed screws, feeder chutes, or pneumatic feed systems. The means 26 and28 for introducing the fuel and sulfur-reducing additive may furtherinclude means 30 and 32 for controlling the feed rates of the fuel andthe additive, respectively. The means 30 and 32 for controlling the feedrates of the fuel and the additive may include, for example, feed ratecontrollers or supply gas controllers.

Another sulfur-reducing stage 34 is disposed downstream of the furnace12 in the flue gas channel 16. This stage may include dry, semidry,and/or wet sulfur-reduction equipment, different types of which are wellknown per se, and, therefore, are not described herein. Thesulfur-reducing stage 34 advantageously includes means 36 for adding asecond sulfur-reducing additive, for example, calcium hydroxide, in theform of dry or semidry particles or as an aqueous slurry. The means 36for adding the second sulfur-reducing additive may include, for example,a nozzle or a sprayer system.

Non-combustible fuel material, as well as calcium sulfate and excesscalcium oxide, are removed from the furnace 12 through a bottom ashdischarge duct 40, and from the flue gas through a fly ash dischargeduct 42 of a dust separator 44. The dust separator 44 may advantageouslybe an electrostatic dust separator or a bag filter. Although in FIG. 1the sulfur-reducing stage 34 is shown to be disposed downstream of thedust separator 44, in some cases it may advantageously be disposedupstream of a dust separator. The boiler may also include other flue gascleaning equipment not specifically shown in FIG. 1, such as a NO_(X)catalyst, for example.

In order to minimize the calcium oxide content of the ashes, a portionof the bottom ashes can be diverted through a line 40′ and/or a portionof fly ashes can be diverted through a line 42′ for recycling to thefurnace 12 via a recycling line 46. The recycling of ashes enhances thedegree of utilization of the calcium carbonate and the degree ofreduction of sulfur dioxide emissions. The recycling line 46 mayadvantageously include an ash-treatment stage 48, where, for example,the ash particles can be wetted and/or broken to expose active CaOsurfaces in the particles. The rate of recycling of the bottom ash orfly ash is preferably controlled by means 50 and 52, respectively, basedon the CaO level in the ashes or the level of SO₂ in the flue gasesdischarged from the furnace. The means 50 and 52 for controlling therate of ash recycling may include, for example, valves or fluidized beddividers.

Preferably, in accordance with the method described above, theutilization degree of the calcium carbonate is enhanced to about 60% ormore. Preferably, the sulfation efficiency in the furnace, i.e., thedegree of sulfur reduction, is enhanced to about 60% or more.

When using conventional limestone feed rates and CFB furnacetemperatures (i.e., 750-900° C.), all calcium carbonate fed into thefurnace is calcined to calcium oxide. Thus, the energy required forcalcination is linearly proportional to the limestone feed rate, or theCa/S ratio, as is shown by line 1 in FIG. 2. Correspondingly, thesulfation of sulfur dioxide and the release of sulfation energy increaseas the Ca/S ratio increases, but with a decreasing slope. Two slightlydifferent variations of the dependency of the sulfation energy on theCa/S ratio are shown by lines 2 and 2′ in FIG. 2. Line 2′ represents asulfation process that is somewhat more efficient than that representedby line 2.

The net energy release functions, represented by lines 3 and 3′ in FIG.2, are the sums of lines 1 and 2, and 1 and 2′, respectively. Line 3reaches its maximum when the Ca/S ratio is about 1.0, and line 3′reaches its maximum when the Ca/S is about 0.9. Both maximum pointsoccur at a Ca/S ratio where the sulfation energy curves 2 and 2′ havethe same slope 4 and 4′, respectively. This slope 4 and 4′ is oppositeto the slope of line 1, so that the sum curves 3 and 3′ are horizontalat their maximum points.

Preferably, a Ca/S ratio of about 1.0, or slightly less than 1.0, isused in the furnace of a CFB boiler comprising a furthersulfur-reduction stage in the flue gas path. When the relation betweenthe furnace sulfur reduction and the Ca/S ratio is accurately known, alimestone feed rate providing an incremental sulfur-reduction rate inthe furnace of about 0.355 or more is preferred. This value of 0.355corresponds to the ratio of the reaction heats of calcination andsulfation, 178.4 kJ/kmol and 502.4 kJ/kmol, respectively. Higherlimestone feed rates, i.e., those where less than 0.355 of the addedlimestone leads to sulfation, result in decreased thermal efficiency,and, therefore, are less than optimal for use in connection with thepresent invention.

The fixed costs of incorporating a sulfur-reduction stage in the fluegas path downstream of the furnace are relatively high. The capacity ofthe process depends on the number of pumps and spraying levels of thesystem, but generally the fixed costs do not depend strongly on theamount of sulfur reduction desired in the process. Thus, on the basis ofthe fixed costs, it is not particularly beneficial to minimize thedownstream sulfur reduction. The variable costs of a downstream processare typically linearly proportional to the sulfur-reduction rate.Usually, downstream sulfur-reduction processes require more expensiveadditives than the furnace-based process. However, the utilizationdegree of the additives in downstream processes is usually very high,and disposal costs, at least in some processes, are relatively low.

For furnace-based sulfur reduction, the fixed costs are relativelysmall. The variable costs depend non-linearly on the desired level ofsulfur reduction, due to the above-described effect on the thermalefficiency and the harmful increase of CaO in the ashes.

It has been found that an especially advantageous sulfur-reductionprocess is obtained by combining sulfur reduction in the furnace with adownstream sulfur-reduction stage, wherein only a limited amount ofsulfur reduction takes place in the furnace. According to a preferredembodiment of the present invention, the sulfur reduction in the furnaceis limited by providing a Ca/S molar ratio of about 1.2 or less in thefurnace. The Ca/S ratio is preferably between about 1.2 and about 0.6,more preferably between about 1.2 and about 0.8, and most preferablybetween about 1.2 and about 0.9.

In some cases the sulfur reduction in the furnace is advantageouslylimited by providing a Ca/S molar ratio of about 1.0 or less in thefurnace. In those cases, the Ca/S ratio is preferably between about 1.0and about 0.6, more preferably between about 1.0 and about 0.8, and mostpreferably between about 1.0 and about 0.9.

The most preferable Ca/S ratio varies according to the dependence of thefurnace sulfur reduction on the Ca/S ratio. If the furnace reduction isespecially effective, the Ca/S ratio which is most preferable in termsof thermal efficiency may be slightly less than 1.0. If the furnacereduction is less effective, then the most preferred Ca/S ratio may beslightly greater than 1.0, e.g., about 1:2. The present invention canadvantageously be combined with conventional measures to enhance thefurnace sulfur reduction, such as particle size control and/or ashrecycling, whereby the optimal Ca/S ratio in the furnace can be lowered.

According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the Ca/Sratio is about 1.0, or slightly less than 1.0, and the bottom ashesand/or fly ashes discharged from the furnace are recycled as bedmaterial to the furnace in order to reduce the amount of CaO in theashes by using it for sulfur reduction in the furnace. Preferably, theashes are recycled to the furnace so as to provide a utilization degreeof the originally fed calcium carbonate of more than about 60%, wherebythe disposal or utilization of the ashes removed from the furnacebecomes relatively easy. Even more preferably, the ashes are recycled tothe furnace so as to provide a sulfur dioxide-reduction degree of morethan about 60% in the furnace. The loop for recycling bottom ash and/orfly ash may advantageously comprise a stage for treating the ashes,e.g., by breaking ash particles to expose active CaO surfaces.

In an example, based on calculations for a 400 MWe CFB boiler combustingbrown coal, a net thermal efficiency gain of the whole power plant from40.75% to 41.60% was obtained by replacing a sulfur reduction solely inthe furnace with a sulfur-reduction split between the furnace and a fluegas sulfur-reduction stage. In both cases, the same total sulfurreduction was obtained. The net efficiency gain of 0.85 percentagepoints is of considerable economical value.

In the split sulfur-reduction mode of the above example, the molar Ca/Sratio in the furnace was close to 1.0, whereas in the case based onsulfur reduction in the furnace only, the ratio was about 4. In thesplit-reduction mode, calcium was fed also in the downstream reductionstage, but the total calcium consumption was only about 44% of that inthe furnace-based reduction mode. Thus, the ash and waste disposalproblems are minimized with the split sulfur-reduction process inaccordance with the present invention.

While the invention has been described herein by way of examples inconnection with what are at present considered to be the most preferredembodiments, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited tothe disclosed embodiments, but is intended to cover various combinationsor modifications of its features and several other applications includedwithin the scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims.

1. A method of reducing sulfur dioxide emissions of a circulatingfluidized bed boiler, comprising the steps of: (a) feeding a firststream comprising a sulfur-containing carbonaceous fuel to a furnace ofthe boiler; (b) feeding a second stream comprising calcium carbonate tothe furnace at a rate relative to the first stream such that the molarratio of calcium in the second stream to sulfur in the first stream (theCa/S molar ratio) is at most about 1.0; (c) combusting the fuel so thatthe sulfur is oxidized to form sulfur dioxide and ashes are produced inthe furnace; (d) calcining the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxidein the furnace and utilizing the calcium oxide to sulfate the sulfurdioxide to form calcium sulfate; (e) discharging flue gases andparticles entrained in the flue gases from the furnace; (f) separatingthe particles from the flue gases using a hot loop separator, andreturning the separated particles to the furnace; (g) discharging theashes from the boiler; and (h) further reducing the sulfur content ofthe flue gases in a sulfur-reduction stage downstream of the furnace. 2.The method of claim 1, wherein the Ca/S molar ratio is between about 0.6and about 1.0.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the Ca/S molar ratio isbetween about 0.8 and about 1.0.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein theCa/S molar ratio is between about 0.9 and about 1.0.
 5. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the further sulfur reduction is performed by one of adry, semidry, and wet sulfur-reduction process.
 6. The method of claim1, further comprising a step of enhancing the calcium carbonateutilization efficiency in the furnace.
 7. The method of claim 6, whereinthe step of enhancing the calcium carbonate utilization efficiency isperformed so that more than about 60% of the calcium carbonate isutilized for sulfating the sulfur dioxide to form calcium sulfate. 8.The method of claim 6, wherein the step of enhancing the calciumcarbonate utilization efficiency comprises recycling the ashes to thefurnace.
 9. The method of claim 6, wherein the step of enhancing thecalcium carbonate utilization efficiency comprises limiting the meandiameter of the calcium carbonate fed into the furnace to less thanabout 200 μm.
 10. The method of claim 6, wherein the step of enhancingthe calcium carbonate utilization efficiency comprises configuring thehot loop separator to have a separation efficiency of at least about99.9% for particles having a diameter of 200 μm.
 11. The method of claim1, further comprising a step of enhancing the sulfation efficiency inthe furnace.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the step of enhancingthe sulfation efficiency is performed so that more than about 60% of thesulfur dioxide is converted to calcium sulfate in the furnace.
 13. Themethod of claim 11, wherein the step of enhancing the sulfationefficiency comprises recycling the ashes to the furnace.
 14. The methodof claim 11, wherein the step of enhancing the sulfation efficiencycomprises limiting the mean diameter of the calcium carbonate fed intothe furnace to less than about 200 μm.
 15. The method of claim 11,wherein the step of enhancing the sulfation efficiency comprisesconfiguring the hot loop separator to have a separation efficiency of atleast about 99.9% for particles having a diameter of 200 μm.
 16. Amethod of reducing sulfur dioxide emissions of a circulating fluidizedbed boiler, comprising the steps of: (a) feeding a first streamcomprising sulfur-containing carbonaceous fuel to a furnace of theboiler; (b) feeding a second stream comprising calcium carbonate to thefurnace at a rate relative to the first stream such that the molar ratioof calcium in the second stream to sulfur in the first stream (the Ca/Smolar ratio) is at least about 0.6, and at a rate low enough to providean incremental sulfur-reduction rate of at least about 0.355; (c)combusting the fuel so that the sulfur is oxidized to form sulfurdioxide and ashes are produced in the furnace; (d) calcining the calciumcarbonate to form calcium oxide in the furnace and utilizing the calciumoxide to sulfate the sulfur dioxide to form calcium sulfate; (e)discharging flue gases and particles entrained in the flue gases fromthe furnace; (f) separating the particles from the flue gases using ahot loop separator, and returning the separated particles to thefurnace; (g) discharging the ashes from the boiler; and (h) furtherreducing the sulfur content of the flue gases in a sulfur-reductionstage downstream of the furnace.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein thefurther sulfur reduction is performed by one of a dry, semidry, and wetsulfur-reduction process.
 18. The method of claim 16, further comprisinga step of enhancing the calcium carbonate utilization efficiency in thefurnace.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the step of enhancing thecalcium carbonate utilization efficiency is performed so that more thanabout 60% of the calcium carbonate is utilized for sulfating the sulfurdioxide to form calcium sulfate.
 20. The method of claim 18, wherein thestep of enhancing the calcium carbonate utilization efficiency comprisesrecycling the ashes to the furnace.
 21. The method claim 18, wherein thestep of enhancing the calcium carbonate utilization efficiency compriseslimiting the mean diameter of the calcium carbonate fed into the furnaceto less than about 200 μm.
 22. The method of claim 18, wherein the stepof enhancing the calcium carbonate utilization efficiency comprisesconfiguring the hot loop separator to have a separation efficiency of atleast about 99.9% for particles having a diameter of 200 μm.
 23. Themethod of claim 16, further comprising a step of enhancing the sulfationefficiency in the furnace.
 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the stepof enhancing the sulfation efficiency is performed so that more thanabout 60% of the sulfur dioxide is converted to calcium sulfate in thefurnace.
 25. The method of claim 23, wherein the step of enhancing thesulfation efficiency comprises recycling the ashes to the furnace. 26.The method of claim 23, wherein the step of enhancing the sulfationefficiency comprises limiting the mean diameter of the calcium carbonatefed into the furnace to less than about 200 μm.
 27. The method of claim23, wherein the step of enhancing the sulfation efficiency comprisesconfiguring the hot loop separator to have a separation efficiency of atleast about 99.9% for particles having a diameter of 200 μm.